A Little Etymology

If you recognize the parts, you'll understand the whole: learn the Greek and Latin roots, the prefixes and affixes.

by N.S. Gill

Related Resources • Q. General Writing and Grammar Help: How Do You recognize the Root? • Etymology - English Words with Latin Prefixes • Greek Letters in HTML • Words and Ideas Review of William J. Domink's etymology and vocabulary building book. • Etymology - English Words with Latin Prefixes • Why your kids should learn Latin • Latin Dictionaries • Latin Vocabulary Lists

Elsewhere on the Web • Roots vs Affixes • Minimal Greek Elements, aero- to logo- • Minimal Greek Elements, macro- to zoo- • Minimal Latin Elements, a-, ab-, abs- to junct- • Minimal Latin Elements, lav- to vor-

As someone trained in foreign languages and theoretical linguistics, I completely agree with the experts quoted in Why your kids should learn Latin. I would add that the study of Ancient Greek stems and affixes is equally valuable. As a follow-up to this article, I would suggest that you compile a short course on the meanings of Greek and Latin stems and affixes, focussing upon their value as reading aids in English and the Romance languages.
- Anonymous, from Users Feedback

Today's feature is meant to be an introduction to Classical stems and affixes -- not an introduction to linguistics. Following the advice of William Harris, the major expert quoted in my feature named above, I found the small, but dense 1953 gem, Scientific Terminology, invaluable.
In ordinary life, knowing Greek and Latin components of English enhances understanding and facilitates communication, but in the sciences, particularly in areas of medicine, it could be more serious.

Hypothetical Examples

You've all heard the story about the fellow who went in for a routine exam only to land on the operating table. This could conceivably happen to a patient seeking a routine colonoscopy. Way back, when I was TAing Medical Terms, there were many students who wouldn't have selected the right tools -- or even the right orifice for the colonoscopy. There are many who would have gone straight for a woman's reproductive organs, searching for growths to cut away, mistaking not only the colon for the vagina, but an examination for a cutting procedure. The confusion went the other way as well, with students mistaking a colposcopy (examination of the cervix and vagina) for a colectomy (the removal of the large bowel).

-Why Study Terminology (http://a%2Dbetter%2Dway.com/systems/3%5F1.html%23why - Accessed May 26, 1998)
How knowing the etymology of rhinoceros will help you understand your doctor's diagnoses.

Root Suffix=Word

The suffix on please is an e. Does that surprise you? It did me. But if you look at the word pleas-ure, it makes sense, since removing its suffix leaves the same root as in pleas-e. As John Hough, in Scientific Terminology, points out, roots rarely exist alone. They usually precede suffixes. The same is true of Greek and Latin, even if, when borrowing, we sometimes drop the suffix. Thus, the word cell in English is really the Latin cella, from which we've dropped the a suffix.
Not only do almost all English words contain roots plus suffixes, but, according to Hough, suffixes can't stand alone. A suffix does not have meaning on its own, but needs to be connected to the root.

A suffix is an inseparable form that cannot be used alone but that carries an indication of quality, action, or relation. When added to a combining form, it makes a complete word and will determine whether the word is a noun, adjective, verb, or adverb....

This is different from a compound word which, in loose English usage, is usually thought of as just another case of root plus suffix.
Sometimes two Greek or Latin words are put together to form a compound word. Often we think of these words as suffixes when they aren't, technically, although they may be thought of as end forms.

The following is a chart of some common Greek "end forms."

Greek Word	Ending	Meaning

(Note: breathing marks are missing. These forms and the other tables are excerpted from Hough's book but have been modified based on corrections submitted by readers. The terminal Greek sigma (s) is represented by a regular non-terminal Greek "s" because of the limitations of my fonts.)

And from the Latin, we have:

Latin Word	Ending	Meaning
fugere	-fuge	flee

If you choose to ignore Hough's caveat about end forms vs. suffixes (and you might well question whether it really matters), you might find this [www.cyberhealth.org/suffixes.html] Medical Suffixes page helpful. If you don't care whether it's a root, prefix or suffix, you might derive some benefit from [www.mirrors.org.sg/neuron/neuropre.html] Prefixes to Commonly Used Terms in Neuroscience.

Root Suffix Prefix=Word

Prefixes are usually adverbs or prepositions derived from Greek or Latin that can't be used alone in English. While suffixes are often joined to their roots by separate connecting vowels, the transformation of these prepositional and adverbial prefixes is more direct, although often the final letter of the prefix is changed or eliminated. In two-letter prefixes, this can be confusing. Among other changes, n can become m or s and a final b or d may be changed to match the first letter of the root.
This list won't help you figure out antipasto, but it will prevent you from describing the antonym of precedent as antident or polydent.

Latin Prefix/ Greek Prefix	Meaning
a-, an-	"alpha privative", a negative
ab-	away from
ad-	to, towards, near
ambi-	both
ana-	up, back again, throughout, against
ante-	before, in front of
anti-	against
apo-	away from
bi-/bis-	twice, double
cata-	down, across, under
circum-	around
con-	with
contra-	against
de-	down, from, away from
di-	two, twice, double
dia-	through
dis-	apart, removed
dys-	hard, difficult, bad
e-, ex- (Lat.) ec- ex- (Gk.)	out of
ecto-	outside
exo-	outside, outward
en-	in
endo-	within
epi-	on, upon
extra-	outside, beyond, in addition to
eu-	well, good, easy
hemi-	half
hyper-	over, above,
hypo-	below, under
in-	in, into, on You often see this prefix as im. Used wtih verbal roots.
in-	not; occasionally, beyond belief
infra-	below
inter-	between
intro-	within
intus-	within
meta-	with, after, beyond
non-	not
opistho-	behind
palin-	again
para-	along side of, beside
per-	through, thorough, complete
peri-	around, near
post-	after, behind
pre-	in front of, before
pro-	before, in front of
proso-	onwards, in front
re-	back, again
retro-	backward
semi-	half
sub-	under, below
super-, supra-	above, upper
syn-	with
trans-	across
ultra-	beyond

Adjective Root Suffix=Word

The following tables contain Greek and Latin adjectives in the form used to combine with English words.

Greek & Latin	Meaning in English
mega-, megalo-, makro-; magni-, grandi-	big
micro-; parvi-	little
macro-, dolicho; longi-	long
brachy-; brevi-	short
eury, platy-; lati-	wide
steno-; angusti-	narrow
cyclo-, gyro; circuli-	round
quadrati- rectanguli-	square
pachy-, pycno-, steato-;crassi-	thick
lepto-; tenui-	thin
bary-; gravi-	heavy
sclero-, scirrho-; duri-	hard
malaco-; molli-	soft
hygro-, hydro-; humidi-	wet
xero-; sicci-	dry (Xerox®)
oxy-; acri-	sharp
cryo- psychro-; frigidi-	cold
thermo-; calidi-	hot
dexio-; dextri-	right
scaio-; scaevo- levi, sinistri-	left
proso-, proto-; frontali-	front
meso-; medio-	middle
poly-; multi-	many
oligo-; pauci-	few
stheno-; validi-, potenti-	strong
hypo-; imi-, intimi-	bottom
paleo-, archeo-; veteri-, seni-	old
neo-, ceno-; novi	new
crypto-, calypto-; operti-	hidden
tauto-; identi-	same
homo-, homeo-; simili-	alike
eu-, kalo-, kallo-; boni-	good
dys-, caco-; mali-	bad
ceno-, coelo-; vacuo-	empty
holo-; toti-	entirely
idio-; proprio-, sui-	one's own
allo-; alieni-	another's
glyco-; dulci-	sweet
picro-; amari-	bitter
iso-; equi-	equal
hetero-, allo-; vario-	different

Colors

Greek & Latin	Meaning in English
coccino-, erythto-, rhodo-, eo-; purpureo-, rubri-, rufi-, rutuli-, rossi-, roseo-, flammeo-	Reds of various shades
chryso-, cirrho-; aureo-, flavo-, fulvi-	orange
xantho-, ochreo-; fusci-, luteo-	yellow
chloro-; prasini-, viridi-	green
cyano-, iodo-; ceruleo-, violaceo-	blue
porphyro-; puniceo-, purpureo-	violet
leuko-; albo-, argenti-	white
polio-, glauco-, amauro-; cani-, cinereo-, atri-	gray
melano-; nigri-	black

Numerals
Some are derived from adverbs, most from adjectives.

Greek & Latin	Meaning in English
semi-; hemi-	1/2
hen- ; uni-	1
sesqui-	1-1/2
dyo (di-, dis-) ; duo- (bi-, bis-)	2
tri-; tri-	3
tetra-, tessaro- ;quadri-	4
penta-;quinque	5
hex, hexa-;sex-	6
hepta-;septem-	7
octo-;octo-	8
ennea-;novem-	9
deca-;decem-	10
dodeca-; duodecim	12
hecatonta-;centi-	100
chilio-;milli-	1000
myri-, myriad-;	any large or countless number

Source:
John Hough, Scientific Terminology; New York: Rhinehart & Company, Inc. 1953.